4．解释和预测：“责任扩散”
“If the individualinputs are not identifiable the person may work less hard. Thus if the personis dividing up the work to be performed or the amount of reward he expects toreceive, he will work less hard in groups.”
“责任分散Diffusion of responsibility also contributes to socialloafing. When in groups, people tend to feel less personal accountability andmay even feel that their individual efforts have little impact on the outcome.It is this same diffusion of responsibility that influences what is known asthe bystander effect, or the tendency to be less likely to help a person introuble when other people are present.
Because people assume that their efforts don’t matter and that theyare not personally responsible, they also assume that someone else will be theone to take action.”
5．深入的研究，实际应用：“工作动力衰退”
“Latane and Darleyfound similar results in several additional studies, and since the time oftheir initial work, many other researchers have confirmed that helping isinhibited by the presence of others. In fact, in the decade following the firststudy by Latane and Darley, 48 of 56 experiments found that bystanders helpedless often when someone else was present (Latane & Nida, 1981). Averagingover these 56 studies, people who were alone intervened 75 percent of the time,whereas those in groups helped out only 53 percent of the time.
Is there any group of people who are immune from the inhibitingeffects of other bystanders? According to the results of a review by BibbLatane and Steve Nida (1981), there is only one such group in American society:children under the age of nine. After that, the decision to intervene isheavily influenced by the presence of others.”
“Latane and Darleyfound similar results in several additional studies, and since the time oftheir initial work, many other researchers have confirmed that helping isinhibited by the presence of others.
In fact, in the decade following the first study by Latane andDarley, 48 of 56 experiments found that bystanders helped less often whensomeone else was present (Latane & Nida, 1981). Averaging over these 56studies, people who were alone intervened 75 percent of the time, whereas thosein groups helped out only 53 percent of the time. Is there any group of peoplewho are immune from the inhibiting effects of other bystanders?
According to the results of a review by Bibb Latane and Steve Nida(1981), there is only one such group in American society: children under theage of nine. After that, the decision to intervene is heavily influenced by thepresence of others.”
6．理论校正：监测集体作业绩效+个体作业绩效=社会促进
社会促进（social facilitation也称社会助长作用，指由个人对他人的意识（包括他人在场或与别人一起活动）所带来的行为效率的提高。
他在1897年通过实验研究发现，别人在场或群体性的活动，会明显促进人们的行为效率。他安排被试在三种不同情境下骑车完成25英里路程。第一种情境是单独骑行计时；第二种情境是骑行时让另一个人跑步伴同；第三种情境是与其他骑车人竞赛。
结果显示，在单独计时的情况下，平均时速为24英里；有人跑步伴同，时速达到31英里；而竞争情境下，平均时速为32．5英里。特利普里特进一步的系统实验表明，在实验室条件下，让被试在不同条件下完成计数、跳跃等任务，同样存在社会助长作用。
20/40 children: winding faster when in competitive situation
10/40 children: no effect
10/40 children: competition slowed perfromance
（1）Audience evaluation.How we evaluate theaudience determines our reaction, i.e. is the audience watching closely or arethey just passing through?Huguet et al., (1990) unsuprisingly found thatattentive audiences are more distracting than inattentive audiences.
（2）Opposite sex audience. People usually findopposite sex audiences more distracting and so men are more inhibited ondifficult tasks (but better on well-practised tasks) when watched by womenandvice versa.
（3）Mood. Good moods may in certain circumstancesfacilitate performance and bad moods inhibit them (Mash & Hedley, 1975).
实验心理学是用科学实验的方法，对心理过程，如感觉、知觉、注意、记忆、思维、想象以及言语等，进行客观和量化分析研究。
实验心理学本身就是一门相当重视科学研究的方法论的学科。
一、观察法
观察法是较为原始的一种心理学研究方法。顾名思义，观察法就是通过一定程序收集资料，以期获得描述性的数据来简化复杂现象的过程。
简言之，它是人们搜集、获取、记录和描述感性材料的常用方法之一。
一般说来，观察法最为简单、直接，通常情况下也颇为有效，但其缺点也恰恰在于它过于直接和简单。
研究者通常不会以观察法为主要研究方法，而是将其作为更高级方法的资料准备阶段。
（一）观察法的类型
1．自然观察法
自然观察法是指对自然情境下的现象进行深入观察的一种方法。
举例：布雷泽尔坦-新生儿的行为测评
http://www.brazelton-institute.com/intro.html
布雷泽尔坦新生儿行为评价量表（BrazeltonNeonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale）能够对16种反射和26种行为进行测量。如果布雷泽尔坦及其同事事先不作一系列的详尽观察，就不可能建立评价量表，也不可能进一步就他们非常关心的行为发展中的个体和文化差异进行深入的研究。
The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) was developed in1973 by Dr. T. Berry Brazelton and his colleagues. The scale represents a guidethat helps parents, health care providers and researchers understand thenewborn's language. "The Scale gives us the chance to see what the baby's behavior willtell us," says Dr. Brazelton, professor emeritus, Harvard Medical School. "It gives us awindow into what it will take to nurture the baby."
NBAS looks at a wide range of behaviors and is suitable forexamining newborns and infants up to two months old. The examiner will have abehavioral "portrait" of the infant, describing the baby's strengths, adaptive responsesand possible vulnerabilities. The examiner shares this portrait with parents todevelop appropriate caregiving strategies aimed at enhancing the earliest relationshipbetween babies and parents.
NBAS是一种综合性行为神经检查法。包括27个项目和20个神经发射。行为项目分4个方面；相互作用、运动能力、状态控制和生理应激反应。检查需持续20-30分钟，行为项目评分有9个分度。
意义：
（1）可以全面了解新生儿体格发育、视听感知能力和神经系统情况。
（2）为早期干预提供测量指标
（3）可作为围产高危因素对新生儿影响的检测手段
2．个案研究
个案研究是指深入地研究单个或少数几个被试的观察法。
个案研究虽然能够作出一些推论，但是这种观察研究中的被试数量极其有限，因此据此作出的推论范围也是极其有限的。
3．调查研究
调查研究可以利用准确的取样技术，不会像个案研究那样易受到各种其他因素的影响。
当然，调查研究法得到的结果也必然是描述性的，不能明确地确定事物间的因果关系。
但是调查研究法确实具有自然观察法和个案研究法无法比拟的优点。它能为进一步进行的严格控制的实验研究提供基本理论框架。这是自然观察法和个案研究法难以做到的。
（二）观察法的要点
1．明确观察目标
第一个问题是：研究者首先要明确观察的目标，也就是“观察什么”的问题。
2．无干扰观察 vs参与性观察
无干扰观察主要是指研究者为了避免被研究者（被试）由于知晓正在被观察，产生非自然状态下的行为，而采取的一种无干扰观察技术。Eg.照相机-表情研究
而无干扰测量和无干扰观察之间的关键区别在于是否被试和研究者在同一时间处在同一地点。若处在同一地点，研究者就试图无干扰地观察被试的反应；若不处在同一地点，则研究者间接测量被试的行为产物或结果。所以如果说无干扰观察是一种直接测量，那么无干扰测量则是一种间接测量，因为它测量的是行为结果，而不是所要研究的行为本身。
参与性观察往往应用于野外观察场所的研究，其实也是由于研究者不能打扰被研究者的生存状态而采取的一种方法，即研究者参与到被试的生活中，对之进行研究的一种观察方法。Eg.福塞与大猩猩反应性是在观察过程中应该尽量避免的问题，如果一种研究可能造成被试不自然的反应，那么就要采取措施阻止反应性的发生，因为观察自然状态下的行为才是研究者使用自然观察法的初衷。
（三）观察法的评价
优点：观察法是科学研究方法的第一步，其特点是直接和描述性。
观察法是描述性的，这种特性必定为其带来如下限制：
1．观察法无法让研究者对各因素间的关系作出推论。
2．有时，观察法所提供的资料并不充分。
3．观察法的描述性限制常常被忽略。观察法的效力仅仅到客观描述水平为止，但是实际使用观察法的研究者却往往超出了描述水平上的研究范围，或多或少对观察结果趋向主观化的解释。
4．观察法本身并不一定客观无偏。
