2. What is this course about?
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Chapter 3 Lexicon
Chapter 4 Syntax
Chapter 5 Meaning
Chapter 6 Language and cognition
Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society
Chapter 8 Language in use
Chapter 9 language and literature
Chapter 10 language and computer
Chapter 11 linguistics and foreign language teaching
Chapter 12 Theories and schools of modern linguistics
1. language
Definition
Features
Functions
1) Definition:
Sapir, 1921: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
(语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造出来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。）
Hall, 1968: Language is "the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols." （语言是人们通过惯用的任意性的口头-听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。）
Chomsky, 1957: From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.（从现在起，我将语言看作是一系列有限的或无限的句子，每个句子的长度有限，并由有限的成分组合而成。）
语言是人类特有的一种符号系统,当它作用于人与人的关系的时候,它是表达相互反映的中介;当它作用于人和客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候, 它是文化信息的载体和容器。
A Generally Accepted Definition
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Understanding the Definition
Why a system?
Why arbitrary?
Why vocal?
Why symbols?
Why human?
Why communication?
system: elements in language
are arranged according to certain rules.
arbitrary: there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the things we refer to.
vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages
symbol: words are associated with
objects, actions, ideas by
convention
human: language is human specific,
different from the communication
system of animals
The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
Productivity/creativity: Human beings can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences.
Duality:
lower level ---- sounds (meaningless)
higher level---- meaning
a small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinitely number of sentences.
Cultural transmission: Language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.
3) Origin of Language
The Divine- Origin Theory
The Bow-wow theory
The Pooh-pooh theory
The “Yo-he-ho” theory
The natural response theory
4) Functions of Language
What do you think are the functions of language?
Jakobson’s Model (1960): based on
six elements of communication
Referential（所指的）-- Context (语境)
Emotive （情感的）-- Addresser （说话者）
Poetic （诗学的）--- Message （信息）
Conative （意动的）-- Addressee（受话者）
Phatic（交感的）--Contact（接触）
Metalingual（元语言的）--Code（语码）
Halliday’s Model:
Ideational（概念功能）: convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer
Interpersonal（人际功能）: express social and personal relations
textual（语篇功能）: make any sketch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text
(1925-), founder of systemic functional linguistics,1947-1949 studied at Beijing University, 1949-1950 studied at Ling Nan University, 1955 got doctor’s degree at Cambridge University with The Language of the Chinese “Secret History of the Mongols”
General Functions of Language
Informative （信息功能）:
to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out.
By use of declarative sentences
e.g. Road closed！
Interpersonal（人际功能）:
to establish and maintain their status in a society.
Performative（行事功能）:
the use of language to “do things”, to perform actions.
Through quite formal and even ritualized language.
e.g. I declare the meeting open!
Emotive（感情功能）:
the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer.
Through Jokes, Advertising, Propaganda, etc.
Directive function(指令功能):
get the hearer to do sth
e.g. close the book and listen to me carefully!
Phatic（寒暄功能）:
the use of language to establish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.
Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weather, etc.
e.g. how do you do!
Interrogative function:
ask for information from others
e.g. what is your idea?
Expressive function:
reveal speaker’s attitudes and feelings
e.g. My God!
Recreational（娱乐功能）:
the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.
baby’s babbling, poetry, etc.
Metalingual（元语言功能）: the use of language to talk about language itself.
2. Linguistics
1) Definition
• Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language
language: not any particular language, but the language of all human society, language in general
scientific: based on systematic investigation of linguistic data
Four principles of linguistic studies
• Exhaustiveness/adequacy
• Consistency
• Economy
• Objectivity
2) Significance of Linguistics?
思考：
• 一个人如果没有有关某一语言的语言学知识，她/他能够流利地讲这一语言吗？
答：可以。
• 刘翔是因为具有了跨栏和跑步的运动力学知识，所以才成为奥运冠军的吗？
答：应该不是。
• 语言是人的一部分。研究语言，人门不得不把焦点瞄准自己，到自己的大脑中去寻找答案。研究与人形影不离的语言，能帮助人类进一步认识自己。（熊学亮 2003：1）
语言既是社会现象，是人们相互联系的纽带，但它本身的发生、传递和接受的机制又属于自然现象。语言的这种特殊的性质决定了语言学在科学体系中的特殊地位，即它既是社会科学，又与自然科学有密切的联系，可以说，语言学是介于社会科学和自然科学之间的一门特殊的学科。正由于此，语言学善于从自然科学的发展中吸取相关的理论和方法，推动语言学的发展，而其他人文社会科学又从语言学中吸取相关的理论和方法。语言学是联系社会科学和自然科学的纽带和桥梁。语言学的理论和方法在人文社会科学中处于领先的地位。
• 每一语言都包含着一种独特的世界观，个人更多地通过语言形成世界观（洪堡特 ）。也就是说，每一具体语言都是源出于人，反过来又作用于人，制约着人的思维和行动（姚小平）。
• 语言 思维 现实/科学
• 现代科学的世界观是根据西方印欧语言的基本语法特征概括而成的.（沃尔夫)
• 语言学理论对语言学习和语言教学具有方法论上的指导意义。
3) The Scope of Linguistics
• 思考：
• 语言可以分为哪些层次？
The Core of Linguistics
• Sound phonetics
• Sounds phonology
• Word morphology
• Words/sentence syntax
• Meaning semantics
• Meaning in a context pragmatics
The scope or major branches of linguistics
Theoretical linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Use of linguistics
Applied linguistics
Sociolinguistics
Psycholinguistics
……
Theoretical linguistics
Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics.
Phonology----sound patterns of languages
Morphology----the form of words
Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.
Semantics----the meaning of language
Pragmatics----the meaning of language in context
Use of linguistics
Applied linguistics----linguistics and language teaching
Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use
Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process
Stylistics----linguistic and literature
Anthropological linguistics: anthropology & language variation and use
Neurolinguistics: brain and language
Computational linguistics: the use of computers and computer tech to do linguistic research
4) Some important distinctions in linguistics
Prescriptive vs. descriptive:
• descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,.
• Prescriptive: If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say
Synchronic vs diachronic
Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)
Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
Speech vs. writing
• Speech is regarded as the primary medium of human language for the following reasons:
A. history
B. function
C. acquisition order
如果说语言符号是人类走出动物界的里程碑，那么文字的产生，则是人类由野蛮社会进入文明社会的一个重要标志。（陈宗明 ）
langue vs. parole (F.de Sassure)
• Langue: the generalized rules of a language
abstract, stable, social
• Parole: the application of the rules
concrete, changeable, individual
Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions
Ferdinand de Saussure
• (1857-1913), Swiss, founder of structuralism, modern linguistics, semiology.
• Course in General Linguistics, 1916
Competence & Performance (Chomsky)
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
Avram Noam Chomsky
• (1928-), founder of TG, a revolution to structuralism.
Traditional Grammar & Modern Linguistics
• prescriptive vs. descriptive
• written vs. spoken
• Latin-based framework vs.
universal framework
Linguistic potential & actual linguistic behavior (Halliday)
LP(语言潜势): with l, there is s wide range of things a speaker can do in the cultural he is in. the set of possibility for “doing” is LP from a functional l view.
ALB: what a speaker actually says on a particular occasion to a particular individual is what he has selected from the many possible things he could have said. This actual selection of things from what one could have said is ALB.
etic & emic(唯素的和唯位的)
etic: the linguistc units containing “-etic”,such as phonetic, morphetic, which are used to describe linguistic facts in detail without distinctive features, and are used to describe things.
emic: the linguistic units containing “-emic”, such as phonemic, morphemic, which are used to describe abstract linguistic rules with distinctive features and are first used to describe phonemes.
EXERCISES
Define the following terms:
1. Linguistics 2. Language
3. Arbitrariness 4. Productivity
5. Displacement 6.Duality
7. Design Features
8. Competence
9. Performance
10. Langue
11. Parole
Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.
2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.
3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
4. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?
5. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?
6. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?
7. How do you understand competence and performance ?
8. Saussure's distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?
9. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?
In terms of manner of articulation
• Stops (塞音) : air stream first obstructed and then released, [p] , [t] [d], and [k] [g]
• Fricatives(擦音): partial obstruction and local friction, [f] [v] [z] [] [] [] [] [h]
• Affricates(塞擦音): first complete obstruction, then frication with partial obstruction, [] []
• Liquids(流音): airflow first obstructed then allowed to escape between the tongue and the roof of the mouth, [l] [r]
• Nasals(鼻音): air allowed to pass the nose, [m] [n] []
• Glides(滑音): very narrow passage between the lips and causing slight noise from the local obstruction, [w] [j]
In terms of place of articulation
• Bilabial(双唇音): lips brought together to cause obstruction, [p] [m] [w]
• Labiodental(唇齿音): the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, [f] [v]
• Dental(齿音): between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth, [] []
• alveolar(齿龈音): the tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge, [t] [d] [z] [n] [l] [r]
• Palatal(上腭音): obstruction between the back of the tongue and the hard palate, [] [] [] [] [j]
• Velar(软腭音): back of tongue brought into contact with the soft palate, [k] [g] []
• glottal(喉音): vocal cords are brought together, [h]
according to the position of tongue (which part of tongue maintained the highest)
Front vowels: [i:] [ i ] [e] [] []
Central vowels: [:] [] []
Back vowels: [u:] [:] [] []
the criteria of openness of mouth
Close vowels: [i:] [ i ] [u:]
Semi-close vowels: [e] [ :]
Semi-open vowels: [] [ :]
Open vowels: [] [ ] [] []
Diphthongs:
[ei] [ai] [i]
[au] [u]
[i] [e] [u]
|
收藏
点赞!
反对!